Speeds Associated with Takeoff CRITICAL ENGINE FAILURE SPEED (VcEF) This is a speed that the average airline or commer- cial pilot has never heard of, or believes is V,. It isn't V,, but it is related to it. Critical engine failure speed is the highest speed to which the aircraft can be acceler- ated, lose an engine, and then continue the takeoff or stop in the computed minimum field length. This would be when the distance to accelerate from V, to lift-off equals the distance required to stop. DECISION SPEED (V,) Decision speed is the speed the pilot uses as a ref- erence in deciding whether to continue or abort the takeoff. The speeds given in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual have been computed and selected so that (1) if engine failure is recognized at or above the V, speed, the takeoff may be continued on the remain- ing engines; or (2) a stop may be initiated at or prior to V, and completed within the distance specified in the FAA requirement for takeoff field length. V, is the speed at which the pilot becomes com- mitted to continue the takeoff. If a system emergency occurs before V,, the takeoff is aborted. V, will occur after VcRF or will equal VR, depending on the runway available. `lb clarify the relationship of VcEF to V,, there is 1 second allowed for recognition time during which the aircraft will continue to accelerate to V, after engine failure at VCRn. ROTATION SPEED (VR) Rotation speed is that speed at which the pilot be- gins to rotate the airplane to the lift-off attitude. The rate of rotation can vary, but it should normally take about 2.5 seconds to rotate to lift-off attitude. Rotation at the maximum practical rate will result in attaining the Vz speed at or below 35' with one engine inoperative or result in exceeding the VZ speed at 35' with all engines operating. The criteria used for establishing rotation speed are as follows: 1. A speed that cannot be less than 5% above the minimum control speed in the air. 2. A speed that will result in at least the mini- mum required lift-off speed. 3. A speed that permits the attainment of V2 prior to reaching 35'. 4. A speed that will not result in increasing the takeoff distance if rotation is commenced 5 knots lower than the established VR during one-engine-in- operative acceleration or 10 knots lower than the es- tablished VR during all-engine acceleration. LIFTOFF SPEED MG) Lift-off speed is the speed at which the plane be- comes airborne. If the airplane is rotated at maximum rate, the minimum lift-off speed must be at least 5% above the one-engine-inoperative minimum unstick speed (VM„ one-engine-inoperative) and 10% above the all-engine minimum unstick speed (VM„ all engines). TAKEOFF SAFETY SPEED (VZ) This is the speed attained at 35' above the run- way with engine failure at critical engine failure speed (VC.,,) or a speed at least 20% above the stall speed, whichever is greater, and is the minimum recom- mended climb-out speed. It cannot, however, be less than 10% above the minimum control speed in the air (VMCp). The correct V2 is a result of proper rotation and lift-off procedures and allows the airplane to maintain a specified gradient in the climb-out flight path. MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED-GROUND (VMCC) The minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative must be considered for both ground and air. This again is a variable. Some aircraft with tail-mounted center-line thrust engines have such a low VMS that it is hardly worth consideration for flight and is useful only in computations of some of the other speeds just discussed. This is particularly true of aircraft with nosewheel steering through rud- der control for minimum control speeds on the ground. But there are others, such as the 1- 188 Elec- tra or any other propeller-driven aircraft, that may be very critical for VMCG. Ground minimum control speed is the minimum airspeed at which the aircraft can lose an engine during takeoff roll with the remaining engines at take- off thrust and can maintain directional control by use of full rudder deflection with no nosewheel steering. VMCG is not affected by runway slope or headwind com- ponent. Until this speed is reached, it would be proper and wise to lightly monitor nosewheel steering and main- tain directional control with flight controls throughout the takeoff just as if nosewheel steering didn't exist; but it would be readily available if needed. Improper use of nosewheel steering on an aborted takeoff with engine failure at too high speeds or during skids after landing has caused more damage to air- craft than you might imagine. Nosewheel steering is designed for taxi operations-making large and sharp turns at low speeds, turning off the runway, and park- ing at the ramp. When you're taking off on wet, icy, or slippery runways, the nosewheel begins to hydroplane be- tween 70 and 90 knots (depending on tire pressure and depth of water or slush) and has very little steering effect. VMCO is always lower than V,. MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED-AIR (VMCA) Air minimum control speed is the minimum speed at which an engine can be lost after lift-off and directional control maintained. It is not critical in air- craft with tail-mounted engines. Aircraft with near- center-line thrust (DC-9) have such low VMcn speeds that they are not limiting to flight, since they are be- low stall speed. The loss of an engine still produces adverse yaw and requires considerable control, but it may be considered as having negligible effect on take- off directional control after lift-off. The yaw may be offset with much less than full deflection of the rudder. Engine failure in wing-mounted engines, either props or jets, will cause an adverse yaw, and there will be definite minimum speeds at which directional con- trol can be maintained. This minimum control speed in the air, of course, must be less than VZ; but it can sometimes become a critical factor, and this is where "flying the wing" can be helpful. As an example, the VMcn for the Lockheed I- 188 with the critical or number one engine failed and the other three at takeoff power is 113 knots at sea level on a standard day. This VMCp jumps to a minimum of 145 knots with two engines on the same side failed and the wings level. Merely raising the wing with the dead engines and banking into the good engines only 5 ° reduces two-engine VMCn to 128. The lift of the wing turning into the good engines and against the yaw re- duces the rudder force necessary for directional con- trol and hence the minimum control speed. Having less induced drag from the rudder, the airplane will also accelerate better. MINIMUM UNSTICK SPEED (Vmu) The minimum unstick speed is the minimum speed with which the airplane can be made to lift off the ground without demonstrating hazardous charac- teristics while continuing the takeoff. This speed is es- tablished with all engines operating and with one engine failed. This speed is very rarely found in the pilot's Air- plane Flight Manual. For all practical purposes, it must be higher than stall speed and minimum control speed and may in some instances be about V, speed. With some of the longer fuselage aircraft, it may also be limited by tail clearance; the aircraft could become airborne and the tail would strike the pavement in the high angle of attack and rotation necessary to take off. The only real purpose of such a speed is to establish minimum lift-off speeds, V,,o. Takeoff Flight Path Performance The FAA climb segment gradients required for two-engine turbine-powered aircraft are: (1) for the first segment, a positive rate of climb; (2) for the sec- ond segment, a climb gradient of not less than 2.4%; (3) for the transition segment, a climb gradient of not less than 1.2 % . The takeoff flight path is considered to begin when the airplane has reached a height of 35' above the surface and continues to a point 1,500' above the surface, or to the point where the single-engine en route climb speed of 1.38 VS (138% of stall speed) is reached, whichever point is higher. Most jet engines are approved for continuous operation at takeoff thrust for 5 minutes. The takeoff flight path data with one engine inoperative are based on the use of takeoff thrust for the full time allowed. If the takeoff thrust is reduced by the use of airplane deicing or engine anti-icing, a reduction from airplane performance must be taken into account. (This is usu- ally a gross weight reduction in order to meet climb requirements.) Figure 8.5 shows the performance requirements and profiles for various takeoff flight path configura- tions. The airplane must meet the required climb gra- dient performance with one engine inoperative at all approved operating gross weights, temperatures, and altitudes for which it is certified. GRADIENT REQUIREMENTS The gradient method of calculating climb per- formance during the various climb flight path seg- ments is basically a percentage of the horizontal dis- tance traveled with zero wind. For example, if a 2.4% climb gradient is required, for every 1,000' the air- plane travels horizontally it must climb 24'. TAKEOFF OBSTACLE CLEARANCE Capability to meet the three climb segments is re- quired assuming an engine failure at V,. In that condi- tion, FAA regulations require that the airplane weight allow a net takeoff flight path that clears all obstacles, either by a height of 35' vertically or by at least 200' horizontally within the airport boundaries and by at least 300' horizontally after passing the boundaries. All obstacles must be cleared by a specified amount until the airplane reaches final segment climb speed or 1,500' above the airport elevation, whichever is greater. The aircraft cannot be banked before reaching 50', and thereafter the maximum bank angle is 15°. The gradient loss in a steady turn at a 15° bank angle is 0.57%, with a linear variation to 0° bank angle. As a rule of thumb, the height not obtained as a result of a 15° bank angle is 15' for each 5° heading change, with a linear variation to 0° bank angle. The obstacle clearance requirement is an expand- ing type, which requires that the net flight path must clear all obstacles by 35'. The net path is determined by reducing the 0 wind gradients by 0.8% and then correcting for wind. With 0 wihd, this gives an ex- panding clearance equal to 0.8% of the distance from the end of the required takeoff field length. Figure 8.5 shows this as "net flight path," which is 0.8% below actual flight path to any given point. Since local obstacle clearance is dependent upon the height of the obstacles and their distance from the end of the runway, each airline (or airplane operator) must make its own flight path profile analysis for the airports from which it operates. This results in various obstacle clearance altitudes for acceleration after V2 climb. If such takeoff flight path profiles are not avail- able, it would then be necessary to extend second seg- ment (V2) climb to 1,500'. 'lb obtain the clearance required for engine-out operation, the second segment of the takeoff flight path must be flown at V2 speed. With both engines operating, the climb-out gra- dient at a pitch attitude of 15-16° is approximately four times steeper than the one-engine-out gradient flown at V2. This climb capability assures obstacle clearance with all engines operating, provided the thrust available for climb is not used excessively for acceleration, thereby inadvertently failing to achieve the flight path that provides obstacle clearance. The maximum pitch attitude should not exceed 16°. TAKEOFF CLIMB 1. First segment-This is the climb segment just after lift-off and continues until the landing gear is re- tracted. The speed will vary from VLo to VZ at 35'. The allowable gradient is a positive climb, and I don't know of any aircraft that are limited in this segment. However, all climb performance requirements are based on gear retraction initiated within 3 seconds af- ter lift-off, with the aircraft accelerated to a speed of VZ minimum at 35'. 2. Second segment-This segment starts at the time the landing gear is fully retracted and continues until the airplane reaches an altitude of at least 400' above the runway. It is flown at V2 speed (with an in- operative engine) and must have a gradient of at least 2.4 % . 3. nansition segment-The takeoff flight path profile will vary during the transition segment de- pending upon obstacle location and height. If obstacle clearance requirements warrant, the climb to 1,500' could be made in the second segment configuration (gear up, flaps at takeoff setting, and takeoff power). On the other hand, without any obstacles the transi- tion segment may start at 400', as shown in Figure 8.5. Thus the second segment altitude depends on ob- stacle clearance requirements; it is never lower than 400' in jet aircraft but may be as low as 200' in pro- peller-driven aircraft. At the beginning of the transition or acceleration segment, as the flaps and slats are retracted and the airplane accelerates, the indicated airspeed should never be less than 120% of the stall speed. This is the basis for the establishment of a speed schedule for flap/slat retraction. The available gradient must be at least 1.2%, with the flaps at the takeoff setting or re- tracted and with the thrust at takeoff or maximum continuous. When the airplane reaches the final take- off flight path point at 1,500', it must have a climb gradient of 1.2% while using maximum continuous power, with gear up, flaps and slats retracted, and a speed of at least 38% above the stall speed. In a normal takeoff, if the takeoff weight has been limited by obstacles in the flight path, climbing out at the maximum pitch angle for your aircraft (usually no more than 15-16°) after an all-engine takeoff will as- sure obstacle clearance as long as takeoff flaps/slats and power are maintained. However, distant obstacles must also be considered in accelerating to en route climb speeds, configuration, and thrust settings. Normal Takeoffs The entire length of the runway should be avail- able for use, especially if the precalculated takeoff per- formance shows the airplane to be limited by runway length or obstacles. An FAA solution to the traffic de- lays being experienced these days is a directive allow- ing the tower controller to instruct you to make an intersection takeoff. When you do so, they are also re- quired to give you the length of the runway available from the intersection. However, this is a violation of the operating specification of every airline operations manual, which requires the pilot in command to use the full length of the runway for every takeoff. I've never felt that a compromise of safety, which an inter- section takeoff is, is an adequate method of expediting traffic. After taxiing into position at the end of the run- way, the airplane should always be aligned in the cen- ter of the runway, allowing equal distance on either side for recovery from a swerve caused by a blown tire or engine failure. Runway available for takeoff is ac- tual runway length less the aircraft lineup distance, and a nominal lineup distance is considered to be 100'. Figure 8.6 shows the steps in a normal takeoff; they are discussed in detail below. After runway alignment in takeoff position in a jet, hold the brakes and advance the throttles to a power setting beyond the bleed valve range (this may be either an EPR setting or a percentage of N 1 RPM) and allow the engine to stabilize. Check the engine instruments for proper operation. Most failures occur in the range of bleed valve closing and may be noted at this time. This procedure assures you of symmetri- cal thrust during the takeoff roll. You may hold the brakes until takeoff thrust is set, but this sometimes causes the brakes to drag and clatter from heat, and the aircraft will lurch forward abruptly as brakes are released. A smoother takeoff roll without diminishing performance would be a "rolling" takeoff, accom- plished by fully releasing the brakes after engine sta- bilization from first power application, noting engine instruments after bleed valve closing, advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff thrust, and setting takeoff thrust before reaching 60 knots. A slight forward pressure should be held on the control column to keep the nosewheel rolling firmly on the runway. If rudder pedal nosewheel steer is available, the pilot need not use the nose gear steering wheel to maintain runway alignment and directional control. However, in an airplane with a critical VmcG, the pilot should monitor the nosewheel steering to about 80 knots (or VMc for the particular aircraft), with the copilot applying slight forward pressure and crosswind aileron correction, and then bring the left hand up to the wheel after Vmc is attained. The pilot flying the aircraft and making the take- off should be on the throttles at least until reaching V,. With the application of takeoff power, he or she gives the command, "Takeoff power," but doesn't turn the throttles loose. The copilot (flight engineer in some aircraft) should then set the power by trimming it up evenly, monitor the engine instruments, observe the general airplane condition and performance, and im- mediately call any malfunction to the attention of the pilot. The copilot should also call out V, and VR speeds. After passing V, speed on the takeoff roll it is not mandatory for the pilot to keep a hand on the throt- tles; the point for abort has passed, and both hands may be placed on the control wheel if desired. At VR speed the pilot should fly the nosewheel off the ground, with a pressure of 15-20 lb. of pull force on the wheel, to start the rotation to lift-off attitude. I'm sure you've seen jet aircraft seemingly pitch up sharply at this point. That isn't necessary at all! You must establish a positive angle of attack to fly off the ground, but a smooth rotation (requiring 2-3 sec- onds) should result in a lift-off at an angle of 7-9°. The rotation should be continued until reaching a pitch attitude of 15-16° (requiring another 2-3 seconds). The use of a smooth and proper technique assures a clean lift-off; at 35' above the surface, the speed will invariably be above V2 when the 15° pitch attitude is established. Actually, the airspeed will stabilize sub- stantially above VZ depending on gross weight, tem- perature, and altitude. The smooth continuation of the rotation to at least 15° (or the correct rotation attitude of your particular aircraft) is necessary to get desired and planned per- formance. If the rotation is started too late or is too slow or if the nose is not rotated high enough, the ground roll will be increased. A pitch attitude in ex- cess of 15-16° is not considerate of passenger com- fort. Also, an engine failure right at this point with too high an angle of attack in the rotation will imme- diately put you on the backside of the power curve. You'll have to drop the nose to make the airplane fly, and this will result in a sacrifice of altitude. Landing gear retraction should be accomplished upon establishing a positive rate of climb. The climb attitude (maximum of 16°) should be held and the air- plane allowed to accelerate to flap/slat retraction speed. However, the flaps/slats should never be re- tracted until after the minimum altitude of the second segment climb (400') has been passed. Ground effect and gear drag reduction results in rapid acceleration to the desired speed in this phase of the takeoff flight path. Prior to takeoff, the stabilizer trim is set according to the center of gravity position in percentage of mean aerodynamic chord. This setting is for 0 elevator force at 135% of stall. Because of this, a diminishing back pressure will be experienced from initial rotation to about engine-out climb speed. Crosswind Takeoffs Crosswind takeoffs in sweptwing aircraft are not much different from those in other types. The pri- mary objective during the takeoff roll is to keep the wings level. The upwind wing will have a tendency to rise soon after brake release, and the aileron must be held into the crosswind to maintain wings level. This will not materially affect the takeoff performance. Nosewheel steering will maintain directional control, and the rudder becomes aerodynamically effective at about 50 knots. As airplane speed increases, the aileron required will diminish but will never reduce to zero during the ground roll. Takeoff on Icy or Slippery Runways One of the considerations in takeoff performance is the ability to accelerate to a decision speed, recog- nize a malfunction or engine loss at that point, and bring the aircraft to a stop. All performance involving stopping (and stopping distance) must be based on as- sumed coefficients of friction between the tires and runway surface, and all performance data are based on a dry concrete or asphalt runway. Obviously, wet or icy surfaces will produce a lower coefficient of friction between the tires and the runway surface. Slippery runway surfaces will increase stopping distances and consequently should increase required field lengths. If icing conditions are present or anticipated during the use of takeoff power, engine anti-ice should be turned on before the application of takeoff thrust. The takeoff technique may also vary a bit. Nosewheel steering will not be too effective in maintaining direc- tional control after about 70 knots on wet, icy, or slip- pery pavement. Once the plane is moving, the nose- wheel doesn't do much except turn sideways and skid. Also, with tail-mounted engines in appreciable water or slush, you might not want too much forward pressure on the yoke. Holding the nosewheel down into such conditions in an attempt to improve its steering capability slows acceleration and has a nasty habit of throwing a spectacular "rooster tail" that may be ingested into the engine and possibly cause a flameout. I like to lock the nosewheel in the center, holding the nose steering wheel firmly to override nosewheel steering demands that may be a result of rudder action, and then have the full and unrestricted use of the rudder for directional control. In every air- plane I've ever flown, the rudder is fully sufficient above 50 knots IAS for normal directional control up to a maximum crosswind condition. The copilot can hold the aileron into the wind for you until you're ready to rotate. Takeoff in Slush, Standing Water, and Snow Experience has proved that standing water, slush, and snow affect takeoff performance and must be taken into consideration. The ground roll is extended from slower acceleration, and there is also a possibil- ity of damage to the aircraft from flying water and slush, particularly in the flap area. The condition of the runway should be determined as near departure time as possible. 7b make a decision of go/no-go, be sure the depth is measured by checking a number of places along the runway, particularly the section where the high-speed portion of the takeoff run will occur. No adjustment is required for standing water, slush, or wet snow up to 0.2" or dry snow up to 4". Make certain that the depth limits of your aircraft will not be exceeded for takeoff, be sure to adjust your takeoff runway lengths (or your gross weight for the runway) for the condition, and be very wary of deep slush or water in the high-speed portion of your take- off roll. The depth limitations for takeoff vary for different aircraft, but no aircraft has a limitation of more than 1" of water, slush, or wet snow-usually 1/z". The limi- tation usually reads, "Takeoff should not be attempted on any runway when the average depth of standing water, slush, or wet snow over an appreciable portion of the runway is in excess of 1/2 inch." Taking off on a snow-covered runway is another consideration. Runways covered with snow have a variable braking coefficient somewhere between wet and slippery and icy. When there is a variable such as this, you are much better off to apply the most critical factor; I recommend that you consider braking on snow to be poor to nil. Dry snow is defined as snow that cannot be readily formed into a snowball; gener- ally, takeoffs are permitted in dry snow depths rang- ing from 3 to 6". The total effect of water- or slush-covered run- ways may be summed up in two statements: (1) The depth of the surface covering of a runway can cause a significant reduction in takeoff performance due to the retarding effect of the tires displacing the covering, plus the additional drag effect of the material being sprayed and consequently striking the aircraft sur- faces. (2) This retarding effect will no longer be a fac- tor when the aircraft reaches hydroplaning speed, but then the braking coefficient is reduced to almost 0 at speeds above hydroplaning speed. There are two ways of making allowances for the effect of slush-covered runways: (1) reduce your gross weight for the runway length, wind, and temperature or (2) use a runway requirement chart and then add a percentage factor for additional takeoff ground run. The weight reduction is most commonly used by the airlines and perhaps offers the most safety for an engine loss, but no method yet devised takes in- creased stopping distance for an abort into consider- ation, although the weight reduction does reduce the V, and lift-off speeds. But all accelerate/stop data are still based on dry runway performance. 'Ib use the weight reduction method, the airline pilot refers to the Gross Weights Manual, finds the maximum weight for the wind and temperature for the runway, and then reduces the gross weight further according to runway conditions., For example, let's where we find that we must reduce our weight another 14,000 lb. This gives us a total allowable take- off weight of 77,500 lb. adjusted for wind; tempera- ture; and standing water, slush, or snow-which rather limits either payload or fuel for the takeoff. As a rule of thumb: Compute your maximum weight for the runway with the wind and temperature prevailing and then reduce your gross weight 15% for 1/2" of water, slush, or snow. Usually, however, takeoff field length require- ments are based on the distance required to either stop or take off with a recognized engine failure at V,. This is a critical field length, and the effect of slush on the two-engine takeoff for most twin-engine jets operating today may be compensated for by adding the additional ground run required to the field length. An average of additional ground run requirements for two-engine jets is shown in Table 8.3. Zb use Table 8.3, you would need a chart enabling you to determine the takeoff ground run for a dry run- way, interpolate a percentage increase from the above figures for wind component, and then adjust your run- way requirements accordingly. I favor the method of reducing your weight according to runway length available, adjusting your maximum takeoff weight for that runway according to wind and temperature, and then correcting for runway condition by a further weight reduction as in Table 8.2. But you must be aware that the phenomenon of hydroplaning makes it difficult if not impossible to de- termine critical field length for slush-covered run- ways. (Anytime your computations for runway re- quirement for takeoff amount to maximum weight for the runway or minimum runway required for weight, wind, temperature, etc., you're operating at critical field length.) The lift-off speed is associated with air- craft flight characteristics and must be generalized in terms of indicated airspeeds, which are dependent on gross weight, altitude, temperature, and wind. Air- craft acceleration and the hydroplaning condition are dependent on true ground speed and tire pressure and therefore cannot be correlated with lift-off speed at all temperatures, altitudes, and weights. For these rea- sons, the method of increasing takeoff ground run dis- tance considers only all-engine operation. The method of weight reduction from maximum wind/tempera- ture adjusted weight affords the maximum safety. This can be seen by comparing the climb limit weight for the example we used earlier (99,900 lb.) against the 77,500 lb. we found to be the total maximum al- lowable weight for 1/2" of standing water. The following information will give some guidance as to the effects of slush on takeoff performance in the event of an engine failure. In fact, it will provide you with the in- formation necessary to either produce your own weight reduction chart, such as shown in lhble 8.2, or allow you to figure the correct weight reduction for every takeoff in slush. At speeds below hydroplaning speed, the slush drag is large enough to have a significant effect on acceleration after engine failure. Acceleration on the runway after engine failure is obtained by dividing engine thrust minus total drag by the aircraft weight on the ground and subtracting the runway slope. Since the initial climb-out gradient is the engine thrust minus total drag in the air divided by the air- craft weight, the initial climb-out gradient chart can be used to obtain an approximate calculation of ground acceleration. It is not recommended that a takeoff be attempted where loss of an engine would result in a ground acceleration of less than 1' per sec- ond per second. The maximum takeoff weight in slush that would provide a minimum ground acceleration of 1'/sec./sec. for most two-engine jet aircraft in the event of an engine failure can be estimated by using the Climb Gradient Chart in the performance section of your air- craft's Pilot Operating Manual. It's just like using the chart to obtain. a limiting weight for engine-out per- formance, except that we are going to use a higher minimum gradient to offset the effect of slush on ground acceleration as follows: (1) Use a minimum gradient of 3 % for 1/4" of slush and 7.5 % for slush in excess of 1/4" but no more than 1/2"; (2) add the runway slope to the minimum gradient for corrected gradient; and (3) enter the chart with the corrected gradient, altitude, and temperature and obtain the limiting weight. Engine Failure at V, and One-Engine Inoperative Takeoff For all practical purposes, consider a takeoff man- datory for an engine failure recognized after V, unless the actual runway greatly exceeds the runway length required-by at least 50%. This is especially true on anything other than a dry runway and after reaching hydroplaning speed. In actual practice, recognizing an engine failure or malfunction at V, will result in an abort being initiated at a speed between V, and VR, and this is perfectly safe on a dry runway of the longest of the several distances that must be considered for take- off field length. But never attempt an abort after initi- ating rotation. In other words, if the engine failure oc- curs after the decision speed is reached, the takeoff must be continued (Fig. 8.7). The airplane will yaw toward the failed engine. Use whatever rudder is necessary to maintain direc- tional control, usually one-third to one-half deflection when the rudder is also tied in with nosewheel steering, and keep the wings level with the ailerons. This rudder requirement will diminish as speed in- creases after lift-off. In performing the takeoff with an engine failure, be firm enough with the controls to let the airplane know you're the boss and in full control, yet be cautious of overcontrolling. The rotation to takeoff attitude at VR should be accomplished in exactly the same manner as in the normal all-engine takeoff. However, if you have nose steering through the rudder pedals, you may need a slight amount more rudder, since you lose the steering effect from the nosewheel in maintaining directional control. At lift-off, due to asymmetric thrust, the rudder and aileron must be used smoothly and with discre- tion to avoid unnecessary rolling and yawing tenden- cies. The yaw damper, magnetically held in the ON position, will probably snap off with the electrical in- terruption as the failed engine generator drops off the line and will not be able to assist in lateral stability. Overcontrol, therefore, may cause Dutch roll, which is highly undesirable. As the nose comes up to the normal climb angle and you no longer have a good visual reference for directional control, the compass will become the pri- mary instrument for bank. You should be able to hold your heading within 5 ° by holding the ball in the cen- ter with rudder smoothly applied and maintain your heading and directional control by using slight bank angles. Remember though, the airplane must not be banked below 50', and then no more than 15 ° during V2 climb. However, it is possible to make the wing work for you and lessen some of the rudder required to overcome yaw by banking slightly into the good engines. The rudder and aileron control forces re- quired to maintain direction in most airplanes are rel- atively light and need not be trimmed out imme- diately. As soon as the engine loss is noted, call out the failure and then take no further action except to fly the airplane until the takeoff is accomplished. Gear retraction should be initiated (by command of the pilot) when a definite rate of climb is noted. Sec- ond-segment climb requirements, when operating at limiting climb weights, require gear retraction initi- ated within 3 seconds after lift-off. Second-segment climb begins at VZ (35') with takeoff flaps/slats and gear up; but acceleration is such that obtaining VZ and 35', even with one engine out, is not difficult with proper rotation and lift-off speed. The normal or average pitch attitude for most air- craft to maintain V2 climb is 15-16°; however, air- speed is the primary consideration. After you're established in second-segment V7 climb, command-step by step and waiting until each step has been accomplished and verified before com- manding the next-the immediate-action items for a failed engine. Engine failure at V, is no real emergency unless you panic and make it one. Just take your time, fly the airplane, and command what you want done one step at a time. The exception, of course, is in prop aircraft where there is additional drag from a windmilling prop. The prop should be feathered as soon as possible after failure, and the engine shutdown and feather should be commanded as soon as the engine failure is noted. The pilot should command and continue to fly the airplane. When the immediate-action items have been ac- complished, take no further action until after the sec- ond-segment climb is accomplished and acceleration to engine-out en route climb has been established. Fly right up to the obstacle clearance altitude at VZ, level off, and maintain that altitude as you accelerate and retract the flaps/slats on a normal speed schedule. The airplane will probably have a tendency to settle as the flaps come up. Don't let it! Make whatever pitch change is necessary to compensate for the flaps and hold the altitude smoothly. Maintain obstacle clearance altitude, or accelera- tion altitude, until engine-out en route speed is reached and normal engine-out climb is begun. Take- off thrust should be used until reaching this final-seg- ment climb speed or your takeoff thrust time limits, whichever comes first. Most jet engines have a 5-min- ute takeoff thrust limitation, and most piston engines a 2-minute limitation. However, it is important to thor- oughly understand the 2-minute limitation of the pis- ton engine. It is related to cylinder head temperature and merely means that the manufacturer doesn't guarantee the engine for more than 2 minutes of operation at its maximum limiting cylinder head tem- perature. You may use the power for more than 2 min- utes without experiencing detonation in a well-main- tained engine as long as the cylinder head temperature can be kept down. After establishing engine-out en route climb, set your power and command, "Max continuous power, engine-out checklist!" And after that, "Climb check!" The next consideration is where to land as soon as practical. You might, weather permitting, return to the field you just took off from, dumping fuel if necessary (fuel-dumping time required should be computed prior to takeoff), which might necessitate a clearance to a dumping area; or you might need a clearance to a takeoff alternate if the field of departure is below land- ing limits.